Rubnitz 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION NETWORKS TO PRESERVING ENDANGERED PLANTS, USING HAWAIʻI AND GEORGIA AS BLUEPRINTS

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1 Rubnitz 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION NETWORKS TO PRESERVING ENDANGERED PLANTS, USING HAWAIʻI AND GEORGIA AS BLUEPRINTS Talia Rubnitz Fall 2013 Hokule a National Environmental Issues Instructor: Anukriti Hittle, Washington University in St. Louis ABSTRACT Currently, there is a lack of awareness about the importance of plant conservation and the methods that are used to conserve critically rare species. Successful conservation requires cooperation between biologists, policy makers and the public. In Hawaiʻi, deemed the endangered species capital of the world, a complex web of different organizations and practices work together to maintain and safeguard the endangered flora. This puzzle of conservation would not be complete without each of the pieces: habitat conservation, collection, micropropagation, seed storage, greenhouse cultivation, out-planting and education. Facilities and organizations across the nation are adapting conservation practices similar to those in Hawaiʻi to protect their endangered species. In the American southeast, in order to combat this problem, the Georgia State Department created the Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance (GPCA). This Alliance plays a pivotal role in the protection, propagation and planting of endangered, native species. Organizations such as the GPCA, along with the entire conservation system in Hawaiʻi, are blueprints for networks that should be developed on a wider scale across the country in order to properly protect endangered species. INTRODUCTION The world is currently in the midst of the sixth mass extinction. While mass extinctions are natural processes, species today are becoming extinct faster than ever before. In the past, these extinctions were caused by cataclysmic events, whereas today s current extinction is highly anthropogenic. Due to the substantial human involvement, however, people could aid in reversing these trends by changing their actions. The preservation of threatened plants is extremely pressing in Hawaiʻi, a biodiversity hotspot: a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction ("Biodiversity Hotspot"). Although Hawaiʻi occupies less than 1% of United States territory, it is home to 49.5% of the nation s endangered plant species (Sugii). Since ninety percent of species in Hawaiʻi exist nowhere else in the world and are quickly disappearing, conservation is a priority. Half of the state s native plants are endangered and ten percent of them become extinct every year a rate which is increasing. As a result, Hawaiʻi has been deemed the endangered species capital of the world (Williams). In Hawaiʻi, an intricate network of different institutions preserve and protect as many of these endangered species as possible. The successful conservation of Hawaiian plants would not be possible without the existence of each of the consecutive, integral organizations and processes: collection, micropropagation, seed storage, greenhouse cultivation, out-planting and education. Due to its inherent success, this model of conservation can be found throughout the

2 Rubnitz 2 mainland U.S, in places such as Georgia. In Georgia, the Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance (GPCA) plays a very important role in the thorough, statewide conservation process. While networks of conservation, such as those present in Hawaiʻi and Georgia, are essential in preserving critically rare species, many more places need to adapt this methodology in order to properly combat extinction. This paper discusses why plant conservation is important, exposes threats to native species, explores the interdependent relationships of different Hawaiian conservation organizations and practices, and compares those efforts to similar endeavors in Georgia and the Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance. WHY IS PLANT CONSERVATION IMPORTANT? Due to the interconnected relationship between plants and animals in different ecosystems, the extinction of one species could cause the extinction of another, thus triggering a snowball effect. An example of such phenomenon is with the native birds and plants of Hawaiʻi. Many native Hawaiian birds, including the Oʻo and Lanai Creeper ( Hawaii's Extinct Species-- Birds ), became extinct after the arrival of humans. The absence of these birds is a primary cause for the demise of native Hawaiian plants their pollinators are extinct. In order to combat this issue, many endangered species, such as the Hesperomannia oahuensis, are hand-pollinated with pollen from others of the same species ( 5-Year Review: Short Form Summary ). Plant conservation is also imperative because the dwindling of native Hawaiian plants has led to the disappearance of culturally significant species. Such a decline can affect culture and tradition, some aspects of which, once lost, are irreplaceable. Hawaiian tradition is interwoven with natural resources, where plants are used in spiritual and cultural events. Additionally, plant extinction leads to declining genetic resources. Without the genetic reservoir of wild plants, humans would be unable to withstand changes in the future such as disease, pests, and crop infestations. There is so much to lose as these species become extinct. In order to best protect native species, it is essential to control their major threats. THREATS TO NATIVE SPECIES Nationwide, the major threats to native species are predators and invasive plants. While pollinator extinction is a major hazard to endangered species, it is not the most prominent. The most common threats to native Hawaiian plant species are predation from rats and ungulates and competition from invasive species. Rats chew through endangered vegetation and eat the seeds of plants; they do not spare threatened and endangered species, further lessening their chance for survival. Ungulates, such as feral pigs, create huge mud pits and uproot soil, causing it to become loose, and enabling invasive species to more easily spread their roots and take over the area. Invasive species, such as Clidemia, Cissus, Strawbery Guava, and Ginger, can completely take over forestland in Hawaiʻi and prevent other plants from growing. Clidemia hirta, commonly known as soapbush or Koster s Curse, was first introduced to Hawaiʻi in the 1940s from the Neotropics, and, within forty years, spread to over 90,000 acres across Oʻahu ("Koster's Curse"). Cissus verticillata, commonly known as Princess vine or Season vine, is native to Guatemala and completely envelops all other vegetation on the forest floor and in the trees in Hawaiʻi (Nicolson). Strawberry Guava (Psidium cattleianum) was first introduced to Hawaiʻi in 1825 from Brazil. Since then, on the island of Oʻahu alone, the invader has degraded

3 Rubnitz 3 approximately 300,000 acres of conservation land ("Strawberry Guava: Not All Green Is Good"). Similarly, Kahili Ginger, or Hedychium gardnerianum, was brought to Hawaiʻi in the early 1900s. It is extremely destructive to native vegetation as it creates a solid mat of rhizomes on the forest floor, and completely displaces the mosses, ferns, tree seedlings, and shrubs that normally carpet the ground ("Invasive Species Management"), thus limiting biodiversity and the amount of water the ground can hold. These invasive plants and predators are very harmful to native species; their management is essential for the protection of native plants. FEDERAL AND STATE CONSERVATION LEGISLATION In order to protect endangered species from existing threats, rules and regulations have been implemented to safeguard species from extinction. In 1973, President Nixon put into effect the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The Act serves to provide a means whereby the ecosystems, upon which endangered species and threatened species depend, may be conserved to provide a program for the conservation of such endangered species and threatened species, and to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the purposes of the treaties and conventions set forth ("Endangered Species Act (ESA)"). The ESA is implemented by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). While laws on a national level are important to set the general tone for conservation, statewide legislation is essential in order to provide effective plant protection and recovery. In Article 11, Section 1, the Hawaiian Constitution directly references conservation and the citizens duty to protect the environment: For the benefit of present and future generations, the State and its political subdivisions shall conserve and protect Hawaii's natural beauty and all natural resources, including land, water, air, minerals and energy sources, and shall promote the development and utilization of these resources in a manner consistent with their conservation and in furtherance of the self-sufficiency of the State (The Constitution of the State of Hawaii). In addition to the Hawaiian Constitution, Hawaiʻi strictly abides by the Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS). In 2005, congress required all states to create a CWCS, which are to be updated every five years. In Hawaiʻi, CWCS plays a key role in conservation of plants and animals. CWCS takes a habitat management approach, adopting a landscape view that takes into account the complex inter-relationships between species and their habitats and the need for change and adaptability (Conry). Hawaiʻi s CWCS is coordinated by the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR), as well as the Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) and the Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR), all of which make sure the CWCS positively impact[s] the conservation of biodiversity in these islands (Conry). THE HAWAIIAN CONSERVATION NETWORK Main Hawaiian Plant Conservation Organizations While federal and state legislation provide an important foundation for conservation, the individual organizations that interact with each other provide the hands-on implementation of these laws. The Plant Extinction Prevention Program of Hawaiʻi (PEP) acts as the keystone piece in the conservation puzzle and employs a rigorous methodology in order to address conservation. PEP s mission is to protect Hawaiʻi s critically endangered species by focusing on plants that have fewer than fifty members remaining in the wild. Currently, there are 213 species

4 Rubnitz 4 on PEP s list. In order to achieve their mission, PEP s program members must diversify to cover a wide range of tasks; they have projects in collection, surveying, reintroduction, and monitoring ("Hawaii Plant Extinction Prevention Program"). In order to ensure the success of their projects, PEP must also manage important threats; PEP manages invasive species by removing alien plants from sensitive areas as well as setting up rattraps. This agency does crucial work to save and protect plant populations, yet it is only one participant in the conservation body. Another very important organization involved in plant conservation in Hawaiʻi is the Harold L. Lyon Arboretum in Honolulu. This education and research facility houses a prominent seed storage laboratory, the only micropropagation lab in the state, and a large variety of tropical plants in its gardens. At the Lyon Arboretum, it is possible to save a species from the brink of extinction through micropropagation and by preserving important genetic material in the seeds of rare plants. Both PEP and the Lyon Arboretum play essential roles in the hands-on work of Hawaiian conservation using ex-situ and in-situ partnerships. The Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance (HCA) plays another essential role in the conservation picture. The HCA is a cooperative collaboration of conservation leaders representing nineteen government, education, and non-profit organizations (HCA). The three main areas of focus for the Alliance are biosecurity efforts, combating climate change, and increasing watershed protection. HCA is a network of partners such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of Defense, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Among these are also the University of Hawai i at Mānoa (with which the Lyon Arboretum is affiliated), and the Department of Land and Natural Resources (where PEP is housed) (HCA). The HCA is a partnership that plays a fundamental role in the conservation of Hawaiian flora, for it provides the glue that connects many facets of Hawaiian plant conservation. Pieces of the Conservation Puzzle: From Habitat Protection to Education In order to successfully safeguard native plants, the interwoven network of organizations follows certain steps and practices in order to maximize their efficiency, some of which I was able to observe and experience first-hand. Through the Hokule a Program at Washington University in St. Louis, I spent four weeks during the summer of 2013 in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. There, I participated in and practiced many of the key aspects of conservation. I worked at the Lyon Arboretum, one of the main players in Hawaiian plant conservation efforts. By researching along side professionals, I was able to study and understand the problems, successes, and constraints of Hawaiian conservation efforts. With the Arboretum, I conducted laboratory and fieldwork, thus seeing first-hand each successive step in plant management. Habitat Conservation and Protection: The first step in Hawaiian plant conservation is habitat protection. Under the Endangered Species Act, The Fish and Wildlife Service as well as the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) are key players in designating and maintaining critical habitats. In 1970, the DLNR established the Natural Area Reserves System as a means to protect important natural habitats. There are nineteen reserves on the five Hawaiian Islands, which comprise 109,000 acres of the state s land ("NARS"). These large protected areas foster an environment where endangered, endemic flora are able to thrive. This way, individuals are protected from harmful threats including feral ungulates and trespassers. In Hawaiʻi, I was able to visit the Pahole

5 Rubnitz 5 Natural Area Reserve and see the rare species that this facility supports, including a population of Hesperomannia oahuensis. Collection: The collection of plants is essential for the preservation of their genetic material. Seeds are harvested at this time and cuttings are collected; the lateral buds or eyes from plants that have not yet produced a new branch are ideal (Wiggin). In order to obtain species of interest, collectors must travel long distances and go on strenuous hikes to mountain ridges. There are often fewer threats in higher altitudes because it is too cool and steep for some animals. Thus, mountain ridges foster better growing environments for many species. Once the plant material is acquired, it is then brought back to either a greenhouse, micropropagation lab, or seed storage facility. There are many plant collectors in Hawaiʻi, which can be a source of miscommunication; with so many collectors it often is hard to keep track of plant material, and it is difficult to ensure institutions are getting the proper plant material at the right time (Wiggin). During my time in Hawaiʻi, I was able to partake in the collection experience, as I hiked to the mountain ridges of the Wai'anae and Koʻolau mountain ranges in order to collect the ideal fruits and native plant materials for the Arboretum s laboratory uses. Seed Storage: Once seeds are collected from mountainous excursions, they are brought to seed storage facilities, such as the lab at the Lyon Arboretum. Seed storage is very important, as it provides a means to protect genetic plant material; seeds can remain viable for years. The Lyon Arboretum s storage facility is located in a small room in the basement of the micropropagation lab. Despite the tight quarters, the Arboretum is able to store a vast amount of genetic material in their 4.5 million seeds from 207 taxa. This immense collection is kept in moisture and temperature controlled environments in order to maintain seed viability. Different types of seeds survive different amounts of time in these conditions, but seeds that have had the most success surviving in the seed bank are those kept in cool, dry environments. Different species, however, prefer varying amounts of desiccation and freezing. For this reason, the Lyon Arboretum has established protocols that outline which environment is most conducive to storing different species (Kroessig). In order to properly store the seeds, they first must be cleaned and removed from their outer shells. To extract the seeds, a spatula mashes them in a strainer under running water. Although this cleaning process does not involve much precision, it is essential for the seeds survival. For two days during my Hawaiian experience I worked in the seed storage lab at the Lyon Arboretum. There, I removed Lapalapa (Cheirodendron platyphyllum) seeds from their fruits, organized, and counted these seeds in order to take inventory. Micropropagation: While seed storage preserves plant diversity through a low maintenance technique, micropropagation provides the preservation of important plant material though a living culture that requires a more involved and precise process. Micropropagation is the cloning of plant material in order to increase the numbers of plant species in a relatively short amount of time. This efficient process is able to directly save species from the brink of extinction, and thus is essential in the plant conservation puzzle in a place like Hawaiʻi. The Lyon Arboretum houses the only micropropagation facility in the state and provides crucial conservation services to the entire state of Hawaiʻi. The Arboretum began micropropagating in 1991 with the Rare Hawaiian

6 Rubnitz 6 Plant Project. The main goals of this program were to increase and preserve plant populations in order to prevent further extinctions (Sugii). Since the start of the program, more than eighty endangered species have been successfully grown at the Lyon Arboretum. One of the largest concerns with micropropagation is the threat of contamination from the air and from other plants. As a result, at the Arboretum, they propagate plants using sterile, aseptic techniques where the plants are cloned in test tubes. Not only are the working conditions very sterile, but in-between propagating each plant, the tools are cleaned with Clorox and ethanol in order to eliminate cross-plant contamination. Before micropropagating the plants, they must be extensively sanitized in order to lower the risk of contamination. The plant material is brought under a microscope where it is thoroughly cleaned. It is then sterilized over and over again as it is cut down to a smaller, more manageable size that can be put into a sterile culture and proliferated. Though a series of trial and error, the lab employees were able to discover what techniques and medium worked best for each plant. The Arboretum uses a nutrient rich medium called Murashige and Skoog as the major food source of the plants. This gel-like substance resides at the bottom of each test tube and enables the plants to grow. There are two strengths of this medium: full and half strength. These different types of media are based on a basic nutrient formula and proper ph range that have been adapted over the years (Wiggin). My work was based at the micropropagation lab at the Arboretum; the majority of my hands-on plant work was tissue culture, where I focused on propagating native Hawaiian mints and taro. In order to successfully micropropagate these plants, two main techniques were used: one for eudicot plants, and one for monocots. Native Hawaiian mint (Phyllostegia spp.) is a eudicot plant, meaning that it has secondary and lateral growth. When cloning the plants, as seen in Figure 1, I removed the lower part of the specimen along with the root system, and re-planted the top, new growth into fresh test tubes. Native Hawaiian Mint is listed as endangered under the ESA ("Phyllostegia ), therefore it is micropropagated in order to increase its populations. Taro (Colocasia spp.) is a monocot plant, meaning there is no secondary or lateral growth associated with the growing point of the plant. In order to properly micropropagate monocots, as seen in Figure 2, I removed decaying material from the corm. Unlike mint, taro is not endangered; it is a culturally significant plant, so it is micropropagated in order to safeguard important elements of Hawaiian culture. At the Lyon Arboretum, around 70 varieties of taro are in tissue culture. These methods of propagation enable the preservation of the growing points and ensure the survival of the cloned material. During my time at the Lyon Arboretum, I successfully micropropagated 300 native Hawaiian mint and taro plants.

7 Rubnitz 7 In addition to micropropagating plant sprouts, seeds may also be micropropagated. These seeds are called recalcitrant seeds; they are unable to withstand the freezing and drying process (Nose). In order to preserve their genetic material, recalcitrant seeds are put in a Murashige and Skoog filled petri dish and cultivated. Unlike seed storage, seed micropropagation requires a very extensive cleaning process to prevent contamination. The outer layer of the fruit must be completely removed with the help of microscopes and dental tools. The seeds are then sanitized with bleach, ethanol, and flamed before they can be ready for micropropagation (Sugii). Greenhouse Cultivation: Once the plants have built a strong foundation and have dramatically increased their numbers in the micropropagation lab, some are then transferred to the greenhouse where they can continue to grow and thrive. In Hawaiʻi, there are different types of greenhouses and nurseries based on altitude and temperature. These different facilities are strategically placed in order to mimic the natural environment of sensitive plant species. Here, the plants can adapt to a soil environment in order to prepare them for the next step in the conservation process: outplanting. While in Hawaiʻi, I visited the mid-elevation nursery in the Pahole Natural Reserve Area, which is a part of the NARS system. At the nursery, we removed dead leaves and buds from the plants to prepare them for sale. While many plants are kept in greenhouses in order to safeguard the material, some are sold to increase revenue if the plant is not very rare. Out-planting: After the plants grow sufficiently in the greenhouse and adapt to the soil conditions, they may be out-planted. Depending on the endangerment status of the plants, some species may be out-planted in special, fenced off areas, such as the Natural Area Reserves System. Hawaiian plants on Oʻahu are typically out-planted with the help of Lyon Arboretum or PEP specialists. This process completes the cycle of plant cultivation and is very important for plant populations; it increases the population of species in the real world. At the Arboretum, I out-planted taro and narrow sword ferns (Nephrolepis cordifolia) outside of the micropropagation laboratory. I also out-planted small Bidens (Bidens aristosa) in a preserve along the Manoa Cliff Trails. Education: While education does not directly aid the conservation of plant species, it provides an essential piece of the puzzle. By educating people about the importance of preserving the natural world around them and developing a connection with the land, they will be more inclined to help with the conservation process. Many people do not know or understand how dire the situation is

8 Rubnitz 8 in Hawaiʻi nor have any interest in environmental restoration. Living in a technologically advanced world, society has lost touch with nature; children are more likely to watch TV indoors than play outside. In this way, the importance of childhood outdoor education is paramount, for it teaches environmental stewardship and caring for the land at an early age. At the Lyon Arboretum, the education department offers classes for children and adults. The department s goal is to to enrich the quality of life for [the] local and global community ( Education & Classes ). These classes cover everything from gardening, plant identification, art, cooking, and more. The arboretum also organizes school fieldtrips and summer camps for children ( Education & Classes ), with which I helped during my time there. Education is a vital part of conservation because it is a way to inspire people to take action. LIMITING FACTORS TO CONSERVATION IN HAWAIʻI Despite the meticulous work of institutions and scientists, biological conservation, especially in such a dynamic environment as Hawaiʻi, is not an easy process. Unfortunately, it has downfalls of miscommunication and is very expensive. As previously mentioned, largely stemming from the fact that there are so many collectors, there is a problem of miscommunication amongst the conservation organizations in Hawaiʻi. While this is true, miscommunication is also spurred by a serious lack of funding. A scarcity of money prevents collectors from getting to remote areas frequently; because of this, they are unable to collect the plants at optimum times and harvest at inappropriate times (Wiggin). Peter Wiggin, one of the scientists at the Lyon Arboretum said that the limiting factor that prevents us from doing more, saving more plants, working on more plants, getting more material, and more often, is money (Wiggin). The federal government allocates a certain amount of money every year for endangered species protection, yet it is never enough, nor properly prioritized. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service awards annual competitive grants from the Cooperative Endangered Species Conservation Fund to states. The grants are authorized by Section 6 of the federal Endangered Species Act ( California Receives Federal Grants to Support Land Acquisition and Conservation Planning for Endangered Species ). In 2012, California was allocated $12.7 million in federal grants ( California Receives Federal Grants to Support Land Acquisition and Conservation Planning for Endangered Species"), whereas Hawaiʻi received only $1.5 million ("Hawaii Receives $1.5 Million in Endangered Species Funds"). Hawaiʻi has over two times as many listed endangered species, yet California has fifteen times the land area, so California gets more funding (Wiggin). In addition to limitations from funding, the Lyon Arboretum is also limited by its micropropagation lab facility. The micropropagation lab houses valuable and rare plant material, but it is supported by an aging and rotting wooden foundation. The lab is a part of a collection of buildings that were built in the 1920s and declared as historical sites, so they cannot be torn down (Wiggin). The structures are dilapidated and occupied by termites, yet they are essential to the plant conservation of Hawaiʻi. In addition to termites, the Lyon Arboretum suffers due to its small size; the workroom in the laboratory houses only four stations. The Arboretum is in the midst of planning the construction of a new micropropagation lab, but it has been delayed due to funding issues. Hundreds of plant species depend on the Lyon Arboretum, yet its facility is not very dependable. The lack of governmental funding limits not only the Arboretum, but other organizations as well.

9 Rubnitz 9 PLANT CONSERVATION NETWORKS ON THE MAINLAND U.S. Plant conservation is not only a pressing issue in Hawaiʻi, but in many places on the continental U.S. as well. Southern California, the southeastern coastal counties (mainly in Florida and Georgia), and southwestern Appalachia emerge as hot spots, with large numbers of endangered species More than 90 percent of the listed endangered species in the U.S. are found in these regions (Rodriquez, Roberts, Dobson). While endangered species preservation is an issue nationwide and there are several efforts around the country to protect them, this paper only addresses conservation efforts in the southeastern U.S. Similar to the work of the Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance, conservation networks help in strengthening the preservation of endangered and threatened plant species in these parts of the country as well. One such example is the Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance, based in Athens, Georgia, where 62 plants are federally listed ("Threatened and Endangered Species ). The Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance The Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance, or GPCA, was established in It is comprised of thirty-six public gardens, academic and environmental organizations, as well as governmental agencies that effectively manage statewide projects. The mission of the alliance is to prevent plant extinctions, while working with plant populations first-hand and monitoring their success. GPCA has successfully worked with over forty rare plant species through the full cycle of plant conservation: starting with micropropagation and ending with out-planting and monitoring ( GPCA ), which is very similar to the cycle in Hawaiʻi. In addition to the many aspects of hands-on conservation, the Alliance also facilitates stewardship projects with elementary schools ( GPCA"). In this way, outreach programs provide students across the state with the means and tools for conservation. The success of the Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance lies in its people-oriented framework. The GPCA has a motto: It is all about the plants, which helps ease the competitive nature of the larger companies involved with the association. The GPCA is not only a network of organizations, but at its core, a network of people. Peter White, the director of the North Carolina Botanical Garden said: GPCA is one of the best-integrated conservation programs in the county, reaching across many individuals and institutions. What you see in this program is robust and uplifting it is about people and the good they can do when they work together ("Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance Receives National Award"). This personable coalition operates on a smaller, more intimate level in order to ensure that their jobs are accomplished in an efficient manner. Very reminiscent of Hawaiʻi s plant conservation network, one of the most important partnerships of the association is the Georgia Department of Natural Resources. They provide managerial action plans for the program as well as some of their funding. Another important organization associated with the GPCA is the Atlanta Botanical Garden. At their Ron Determann tissue culture lab, scientists micropropagate plants that are difficult to breed and that are native to the Southeastern U.S. In Atlanta, illegal taking of plants from the wild is a major problem. As a result, the lab is trying to replenish these plants in order to keep their numbers high. The lab has found that micropropagation is much easier and faster than growing plants in soil, and it has a higher success rate with more individuals ( Tissue Culture Lab"). Due to the success and efficiency of plant tissue culture, as more facilities like these are created, conservation success rates will drastically increase.

10 Rubnitz 10 In order to keep in touch and up to date with all of their partner organizations, the Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance holds annual meetings where goals and accomplishments are discussed. At their meeting earlier this year, the Alliance was presented with the 2013 Award for Program Excellence for innovation in developing programs and pioneering horticultural disciplines ("Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance Receives National Award"), which was largely due to the efforts of the Atlanta Botanical Garden. The meeting is essential for the cohesive team efforts of the GPCA. This yearly gathering is quite similar to the Hawai i Conservation Conference s annual meeting, where many conservation organizations reflect on sustainable efforts from the previous year and propose new initiatives (HCA). The HCA is very involved in the production and success of this annual meeting. In many ways, the HCA and GPCA closely mimic each other; they are all-encompassing organizations and work with many conservation partners in order to ensure successful plant protection. Other areas of high concern would do well to copy this model of conservation networks. CONCLUSION: CHALLENGES TO NATIONWIDE CONSERVATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Due to the efforts of alliances such as the GPCA and HCA, the public is beginning to understand the importance of plant conservation in these two states respectively, and the amount of work and dedication that goes into preserving biodiversity. Environmental restoration and recovery are difficult issues to tackle because they are so complex. In order to successfully tackle this issue, education is essential. People must understand what is happening and what they need to do in order to help protect the native flora of their region. Successful conservation requires the cooperation between many facets of society. The extensive web of conservation networks in Hawaiʻi and Georgia are essential for the perpetual existence of many of those states critically rare species. The GPCA and HCA are blueprints to alliances that are necessary in every state, for they provide consistency and transparency by facilitating communication and creating a connection between key organizations involved in plant conservation. The preservation of endemic endangered species is important on many levels. Historically, it permits the continuation of millions of years of evolution. More fundamentally, it preserves not only the local culture, but also the complex web of animal and plant populations, species, and their interactions. It is impossible to know the ripple effect of certain species becoming extinct, but we do know that conservation is essential to preserve a diverse genetic reservoir upon which we depend.